Arias-de la Torre J, Vilagut G, Ronaldson A, Bakolis I, Dregan A, Martín V, et al. Prevalence and variability of depressive symptoms in Europe: update using representative data from the second and third waves of the European health interview survey (ehis-2 and ehis-3). Lancet Public Health. 2023;8(11):e889–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(23)00220-7.
GBD 2019 Mental Disorders Collaborators. Global, regional, and National burden of 12 mental disorders in 204 countries and territories, 1990–2019: A systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2019. Lancet Psychiatry. 2022;9(2):137–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(21)00395-3.
World Health Organization. International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems (11th ed.). 2022.
World Health Organization. International classification of functioning, disability and health (icf). Geneva: World Health Organization; 2001.
Lam RW, Filteau MJ, Milev R. Clinical effectiveness: the importance of psychosocial functioning outcomes. J Affect Disord. 2011;132(Suppl 1):S9–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2011.03.046.
van der Voort TY, Seldenrijk A, van Meijel B, Goossens PJ, Beekman AT, Penninx BW, et al. Functional versus syndromal recovery in patients with major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76(6):e809–14. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.14m09548.
Forero CG, Olariu E, Álvarez P, Castro-Rodriguez JI, Blasco MJ, Vilagut G, et al. Change in functioning outcomes as a predictor of the course of depression: A 12-month longitudinal study. Qual Life Res. 2018;27(8):2045–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-018-1853-0.
Vicent-Gil M, Serra-Blasco M, Navarra-Ventura G, Trujols J, Balanzá-Martínez V, Portella M, et al. In pursuit of full recovery in major depressive disorder. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2023;273(5):1095–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-022-01487-5.
Zimmerman M, McGlinchey JB, Posternak MA, Friedman M, Attiullah N, Boerescu D. How should remission from depression be defined? The depressed patient’s perspective. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(1):148–50. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.1.148.
Judd LL, Akiskal HS, Zeller PJ, Paulus M, Leon AC, Maser JD, et al. Psychosocial disability during the long-term course of unipolar major depressive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57(4):375–80. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.57.4.375.
Ormel J, Oldehinkel AJ, Nolen WA, Vollebergh W. Psychosocial disability before, during, and after a major depressive episode: A 3-wave population-based study of State, Scar, and trait effects. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61(4):387–92. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.61.4.387.
Iancu SC, Wong YM, Rhebergen D, van Balkom A, Batelaan NM. Long-term disability in major depressive disorder: A 6-year follow-up study. Psychol Med. 2020;50(10):1644–52. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291719001612.
Sheehan DV, Nakagome K, Asami Y, Pappadopulos EA, Boucher M. Restoring function in major depressive disorder: A systematic review. J Affect Disord. 2017;215:299–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.02.029.
McKnight PE, Kashdan TB. The importance of functional impairment to mental health outcomes: A case for reassessing our goals in depression treatment research. Clin Psychol Rev. 2009;29(3):243–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.01.005.
Novick D, Montgomery W, Vorstenbosch E, Moneta MV, Dueñas H, Haro JM. Recovery in patients with major depressive disorder (mdd): results of a 6-month, multinational, observational study. Patient Prefer Adherence. 2017;11:1859–68. https://doi.org/10.2147/ppa.S138750.
Schwarz R, Munkholm K, Christensen MS, Kessing LV, Vinberg M. Functioning in patients with major depressive disorder in remission: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord. 2024;363:112–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.07.054.
de Oliveira C, Saka M, Bone L, Jacobs R. The role of mental health on workplace productivity: A critical review of the literature. Appl Health Econ Health Policy. 2023;21(2):167–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40258-022-00761-w.
Evans-Lacko S, Knapp M. Global patterns of workplace productivity for people with depression: absenteeism and presenteeism costs across eight diverse countries. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2016;51(11):1525–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-016-1278-4.
Bültmann U, Christensen KB, Burr H, Lund T, Rugulies R. Severe depressive symptoms as predictor of disability pension: A 10-year follow-up study in Denmark. Eur J Public Health. 2008;18(3):232–4. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckm132.
Banerjee S, Chatterji P, Lahiri K. Effects of psychiatric disorders on labor market outcomes: A latent variable approach using multiple clinical indicators. Health Econ. 2017;26(2):184–205. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3286.
Chakraborty D, Wu DC, Jha P. Exploring the labour market outcomes of the risk factors for non-communicable diseases: A systematic review. SSM Popul Health. 2024;25:101564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2023.101564.
Christensen TN, Wallstrøm IG, Eplov LF, Laursen TM, Nordentoft M. Incidence rates and employment trends in schizophrenia spectrum disorders, bipolar affective disorders and recurrent depression in the years 2000–2013: A Danish nationwide register-based study. Nord J Psychiatry. 2022;76(3):225–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/08039488.2021.1952304.
Dobson KG, Gignac MAM, Mustard CA. The working life expectancy of American adults experiencing depression. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2024;59(6):1013–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-023-02547-4.
Gebel M, Voßemer J. The impact of employment transitions on health in Germany. A difference-in-differences propensity score matching approach. Soc Sci Med. 2014;108:128–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.02.039.
Picchio M, Ubaldi M. Unemployment and health: A meta-analysis. J Econ Surv. 2024;38(4):1437–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/joes.12588.
Virgolino A, Costa J, Santos O, Pereira ME, Antunes R, Ambrósio S, et al. Lost in transition: A systematic review of the association between unemployment and mental health. J Ment Health. 2022;31(3):432–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2021.2022615.
Jefferis BJ, Nazareth I, Marston L, Moreno-Kustner B, Bellón J, Svab I, et al. Associations between unemployment and major depressive disorder: evidence from an international, prospective study (the predict cohort). Soc Sci Med. 2011;73(11):1627–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.09.029.
Paul KI, Moser K. Unemployment impairs mental health: Meta-analyses. J Vocat Behav. 2009;74(3):264–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2009.01.001.
Modini M, Joyce S, Mykletun A, Christensen H, Bryant RA, Mitchell PB, et al. The mental health benefits of employment: results of a systematic meta-review. Australas Psychiatry. 2016;24(4):331–6. https://doi.org/10.1177/1039856215618523.
van der Noordt M, Ijzelenberg H, Droomers M, Proper KI. Health effects of employment: A systematic review of prospective studies. Occup Environ Med. 2014;71(10):730. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2013-101891.
Paul KI, Scholl H, Moser K, Zechmann A, Batinic B. Employment status, psychological needs, and mental health: Meta-analytic findings concerning the latent deprivation model. Front Psychol. 2023;14:1017358. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1017358.
Carlier BE, Schuring M, Lötters FJ, Bakker B, Borgers N, Burdorf A. The influence of re-employment on quality of life and self-rated health, a longitudinal study among unemployed persons in the Netherlands. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:503. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-503.
Rueda S, Chambers L, Wilson M, Mustard C, Rourke SB, Bayoumi A, et al. Association of returning to work with better health in working-aged adults: A systematic review. Am J Public Health. 2012;102(3):541–56. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2011.300401.
Schuring M, Mackenbach J, Voorham T, Burdorf A. The effect of re-employment on perceived health. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2011;65(7):639–44. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2009.103838.
Gibbons BJ, Salkever DS. Working with a severe mental illness: estimating the causal effects of employment on mental health status and total mental health costs. Adm Policy Ment Health. 2019;46(4):474–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-019-00926-1.
Mueser KT, Becker DR, Torrey WC, Xie H, Bond GR, Drake RE et al. Work and nonvocational domains of functioning in persons with severe mental illness: A longitudinal analysis. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1997;185(7).
Bond GR, Resnick SG, Drake RE, Xie H, McHugo GJ, Bebout RR. Does competitive employment improve nonvocational outcomes for people with severe mental illness? J Consult Clin Psychol. 2001;69(3):489–501. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-006x.69.3.489.
Schuring M, Robroek SJ, Burdorf A. The benefits of paid employment among persons with common mental health problems: evidence for the selection and causation mechanism. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2017;43(6):540–9. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.3675.
Jäckel D, Kupper Z, Glauser S, Mueser KT, Hoffmann H. Effects of sustained competitive employment on psychiatric hospitalizations and quality of life. Psychiatr Serv. 2017;68(6):603–9. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201600083.
Luciano A, Metcalfe JD, Bond GR, Xie H, Miller AL, Riley J, et al. Hospitalization risk before and after employment among adults with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or major depression. Psychiatr Serv. 2016;67(10):1131–8. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201500343.
Kukla M, Bond GR, Xie H. A prospective investigation of work and nonvocational outcomes in adults with severe mental illness. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2012;200(3):214–22. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e318247cb29.
Bush PW, Drake RE, Xie H, McHugo GJ, Haslett WR. The long-term impact of employment on mental health service use and costs for persons with severe mental illness. Psychiatr Serv. 2009;60(8):1024–31. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2009.60.8.1024.
Duchaine CS, Aubé K, Gilbert-Ouimet M, Vézina M, Ndjaboué R, Massamba V, et al. Psychosocial stressors at work and the risk of sickness absence due to a diagnosed mental disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2020;77(8):842–51. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.0322.
Seidler A, Schubert M, Freiberg A, Drössler S, Hussenoeder FS, Conrad I, et al. Psychosocial occupational exposures and mental illness. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2022;119(42):709–15.
Theorell T, Hammarström A, Aronsson G, Träskman Bendz L, Grape T, Hogstedt C, et al. A systematic review including meta-analysis of work environment and depressive symptoms. BMC Public Health. 2015;15(1):738. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-1954-4.
du Prel JB, Koscec Bjelajac A, Franić Z, Henftling L, Brborović H, Schernhammer E, et al. The relationship between work-related stress and depression: A scoping review. Public Health Rev. 2024;45:1606968. https://doi.org/10.3389/phrs.2024.1606968.
Adamus C, Richter D, Sutor K, Zürcher SJ, Mötteli S. Preference for competitive employment in people with mental disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis of proportions. J Occup Rehabil. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10926-024-10192-0.
Gühne U, Pabst A, Löbner M, Breilmann J, Hasan A, Falkai P, et al. Employment status and desire for work in severe mental illness: results from an observational, cross-sectional study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2021;56(9):1657–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-021-02088-8.
Becker DR, Drake RE. A working life for people with severe mental illness. Oxford University Press; 2003.
Kinoshita Y, Furukawa TA, Kinoshita K, Honyashiki M, Omori IM, Marshall M, et al. Supported employment for adults with severe mental illness. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;2013(9):Cd008297. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008297.pub2.
Bond GR, Drake RE, Becker DR. Generalizability of the individual placement and support (ips) model of supported employment outside the Us. World Psychiatry. 2012;11(1):32–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wpsyc.2012.01.005.
de Winter L, Couwenbergh C, van Weeghel J, Sanches S, Michon H, Bond GR. Who benefits from individual placement and support? A meta-analysis. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2022;31:e50. https://doi.org/10.1017/s2045796022000300.
van Rijn RM, Carlier BE, Schuring M, Burdorf A. Work as treatment? The effectiveness of re-employment programmes for unemployed persons with severe mental health problems on health and quality of life: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Occup Environ Med. 2016;73(4):275. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2015-103121.
Wallstroem IG, Pedersen P, Christensen TN, Hellström L, Bojesen AB, Stenager E, et al. A systematic review of individual placement and support, employment, and personal and clinical recovery. Psychiatr Serv. 2021;72(9):1040–7. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.202000070.
Burns T, Catty J, White S, Becker T, Koletsi M, Fioritti A, et al. The impact of supported employment and working on clinical and social functioning: results of an international study of individual placement and support. Schizophr Bull. 2009;35(5):949–58. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbn024.
Kostanjsek N. Use of the international classification of functioning, disability and health (icf) as a conceptual framework and common Language for disability statistics and health information systems. BMC Public Health. 2011;11(Suppl 4):S3. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-s4-s3.
American Psychiatric Association DSM-5 Task Force. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: Dsm-5™. 5th ed. Arlington, VA, US: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.; 2013.
Hong JP, Lee CH, Lee YH, Escorpizo R, Chiang YC, Liou TH. Functional status and return to work in people with major depression: A 3-year National follow-up study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2022;57(6):1179–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-022-02240-y.
von Elm E, Altman DG, Egger M, Pocock SJ, Gøtzsche PC, Vandenbroucke JP. The strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology (strobe) statement: guidelines for reporting observational studies. Ann Intern Med. 2007;147(8):573–7. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-147-8-200710160-00010.
Drake RE, Bond GR, Becker DR. Individual placement and support: an evidence-based approach to supported employment. Oxford University Press; 2012. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199734016.001.0001.
Bond GR, Peterson AE, Becker DR, Drake RE. Validation of the revised individual placement and support fidelity scale (ips-25). Psychiatr Serv. 2012;63(8):758–63. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201100476.
Frederick DE, VanderWeele TJ. Supported employment: Meta-analysis and review of randomized controlled trials of individual placement and support. PLoS ONE. 2019;14(2):e0212208. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0212208.
Ustün TB, Kostanjesek N, Chatterji S, Rehm J. Measuring health and disability: manual for who disability assessment schedule (WHODAS 2.0). Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010.
Ustün TB, Chatterji S, Kostanjsek N, Rehm J, Kennedy C, Epping-Jordan J, et al. Developing the world health organization disability assessment schedule 2.0. Bull World Health Organ. 2010;88(11):815–23. https://doi.org/10.2471/blt.09.067231.
Hautzinger M, Keller F, Kühner C. Beck–Depressions–Inventar Revision– Manual. Frankfurt: Harcourt Test Services;: BDI-II; 2006.
Beck A, Steer R, Brown G. Manual for the BDI-II. San Antonio, TX, USA: The Psychological Corporation; 1996.
Beblo T, Kunz M, Brokate B, Scheurich A, Weber B, Albert A et al. Entwicklung eines Fragebogens Zur subjektiven einschätzung der geistigen leistungsfähigkeit (FLei) Bei patienten Mit Psychischen störungen. 2010;21(3):143–51. https://doi.org/10.1024/1016-264X/a000013
Morfeld M, Kirchberger I, Bullinger M. Sf-36 Fragebogen zum Gesundheitszustand: Deutsche version des short form-36 health survey. Hogrefe; 2011.
van Buuren S. Flexible imputation of missing data. 2 ed. New York: Chapman and Hall/CRC; 2018.
Eekhout I, de Vet HCW, de Boer MR, Twisk JWR, Heymans MW. Passive imputation and parcel summaries are both valid to handle missing items in studies with many multi-item scales. Stat Methods Med Res. 2016;27(4):1128–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/0962280216654511.
van Ginkel JR. Significance tests and estimates for r2 for multiple regression in multiply imputed datasets: A cautionary note on earlier findings, and alternative solutions. Multivar Behav Res. 2019;54(4):514–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2018.1540967.
Luciano A, Bond GR, Drake RE. Does employment alter the course and outcome of schizophrenia and other severe mental illnesses? A systematic review of longitudinal research. Schizophr Res. 2014;159(2–3):312–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2014.09.010.
Drake RE, Frey W, Bond GR, Goldman HH, Salkever D, Miller A, et al. Assisting social security disability insurance beneficiaries with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or major depression in returning to work. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170(12):1433–41. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13020214.
Taylor P, Gringart E, Adams C. Psychological effects of unemployment across the lifespan: A synthesis of relevant literature. J Aging Soc Policy. 2023;35(2):154–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959420.2022.2136918.
Unger S, Tisch A, Tophoven S. Age and gender differences in the impact of labour-market transitions on subjective health in Germany. Scand J Public Health. 2018;46(19suppl):49–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494817738430.
Campbell D, Green MJ, Davies N, Demou E, Howe LD, Harrison S, et al. Effects of depression on employment and social outcomes: A Mendelian randomisation study. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2022;76(6):563. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2021-218074.
Drake RE, Wallach MA. Employment is a critical mental health intervention. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 2020;29:e178. https://doi.org/10.1017/s2045796020000906.
Semkovska M, Quinlivan L, O’Grady T, Johnson R, Collins A, O’Connor J, et al. Cognitive function following a major depressive episode: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry. 2019;6(10):851–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2215-0366(19)30291-3.
Zuckerman H, Pan Z, Park C, Brietzke E, Musial N, Shariq AS et al. Recognition and treatment of cognitive dysfunction in major depressive disorder. Front Psychiatry. 2018;9.
Rock PL, Roiser JP, Riedel WJ, Blackwell AD. Cognitive impairment in depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 2014;44(10):2029–40. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291713002535.
Knight MJ, Air T, Baune BT. The role of cognitive impairment in psychosocial functioning in remitted depression. J Affect Disord. 2018;235:129–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2018.04.051.
Evans VC, Iverson GL, Yatham LN, Lam RW. The relationship between neurocognitive and psychosocial functioning in major depressive disorder: A systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry. 2014;75(12):1359–70. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.13r08939.
Hammer-Helmich L, Haro JM, Jönsson B, Tanguy Melac A, Di Nicola S, Chollet J, et al. Functional impairment in patients with major depressive disorder: the 2-year perform study. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2018;14:239–49. https://doi.org/10.2147/ndt.S146098.
Baune BT, Miller R, McAfoose J, Johnson M, Quirk F, Mitchell D. The role of cognitive impairment in general functioning in major depression. Psychiatry Res. 2010;176(2–3):183–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.12.001.
Bergdolt J, Hubert S, Schreiter J, Jenderny S, Beblo T, Driessen M, et al. Predictors of return to work in people with major depression: results from a supported employment program in Germany. J Affect Disord. 2024;364:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2024.07.084.
Vicent-Gil M, Trujols J, Serra-Blasco M, Navarra-Ventura G, Puigdemont D, Alemany C, et al. If you feel you can’t, you won’t: the role of subjective and objective cognitive competence on psychosocial functioning in depression. Eur Psychiatry. 2023;66(1):e83. https://doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2023.2454.
Melián Cartaya MJ, Arias Rodríguez Á, Rodríguez Pérez A, Sánchez Suárez M, Rodríguez-Novo N, Rodríguez-Novo Y, et al. Experiences of individuals with serious mental disorders in regular employment through the individual placement and support model. Front Psychiatry. 2024;15:1423742. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1423742.
Fossey EM, Harvey CA. Finding and sustaining employment: A qualitative meta-synthesis of mental health consumer views. Can J Occup Ther. 2010;77(5):303–14.
Blank A, Harries P, Reynolds F. Mental health service users’ perspectives of work: A review of the literature. Br J Occup Ther. 2011;74(4):191–9. https://doi.org/10.4276/030802211X13021048723336.
Dunn EC, Wewiorski NJ, Rogers ES. The meaning and importance of employment to people in recovery from serious mental illness: results of a qualitative study. Psychiatr Rehabil J. 2008;32(1):59–62. https://doi.org/10.2975/32.1.2008.59.62.
Boland L, Kennedy M, Lynch LJ, Bonham-Corcoran M, Quinn S. Exploring the non-vocational outcomes of the individual placement and support (ips) employment model. Ir J Occup Ther. 2024;52(1):29–35. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOT-09-2023-0021.
Blank AA, Harries P, Reynolds F. Without occupation you don’t exist’: occupational engagement and mental illness. J Occup Sci. 2015;22(2):197–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2014.882250.
Koletsi M, Niersman A, van Busschbach JT, Catty J, Becker T, Burns T, et al. Working with mental health problems: clients’ experiences of Ips, vocational rehabilitation and employment. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2009;44(11):961–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-009-0017-5.
Jäckel D, Siebert S, Baumgardt J, Leopold K, Bechdolf A. [patients’ work-related participation impairments and need for support in day hospital and inpatient psychiatric treatment]. Psychiatr Prax. 2020;47(5):235–41. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1112-5519.
Campbell K, Bond GR, Drake RE, McHugo GJ, Xie H. Client predictors of employment outcomes in high-fidelity supported employment: a regression analysis. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2010;198(8):556–63. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181ea1e53.
Federici S, Bracalenti M, Meloni F, Luciano JV. World health organization disability assessment schedule 2.0: an international systematic review. Disabil Rehabil. 2017;39(23):2347–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2016.1223177.
Linden M, Baron S. Das „Mini-ICF-Rating für Psychische störungen (Mini-ICF-APP). Ein kurzinstrument Zur beurteilung von fähigkeitsstörungen Bei Psychischen erkrankungen. [The Mini-ICF Rating for Mental Disorders (Mini-ICF-APP). A brief instrument for the assessment of incapacity disorders in mental illness]. Die Rehabilit. 2005;44(03):144–51. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2004-834786.
